FAQs
FAQs About Aquaculture
Aquaculture is the breeding, rearing, and harvesting of fish, shellfish, algae, and other organisms in all types of water environments. Aquaculture, essentially farming in water, occurs in coastal and inland areas and involves interventions in the rearing process to enhance production. Sustainable aquaculture is the ability to raise and harvest food-fish without degrading or depleting the environment and in a manner that is economically competitive and that can be sustained indefinitely. Responsibly managed aquaculture can provide growers with a livelihood and produce a nutrient-rich protein source that can help feed the world while not negatively affecting the environment.
Aquaculture in this region includes raising a wide array of species using land-based indoor and outdoor production systems in rural and urban settings. Fish are not currently commercially farmed in the U.S. waters of the Great Lakes.
Great Lakes aquaculture farmers produce species such as Atlantic Salmon, Fathead Minnows, freshwater prawns, Golden Shiners, goldfish, koi, Largemouth Bass, saltwater shrimp, sunfish, Tilapia, trout species, Walleye, and Yellow Perch (USDA, 2018). Some species are raised for multiple markets, including food, recreation, and ornamental purposes.
Great Lakes producers most frequently grow their fish in ponds. Other production systems include raceways, recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), and aquaponics, which is a system that combines plants with fish production (USDA, 2018). GLAC’s aquaculture farm-tour videos show Great Lakes producers at work.
Growing a sustainable aquaculture sector in the Great Lakes region can help diversify food options and increase access to local fish and seafood. Sea Grant’s Great Lakes Fresh Fish Finder directly connects fish producers with consumers.
The global demand for seafood is on the rise. In the U.S., fish protein is commercially harvested from wild stocks and farmed. Global harvest from wild capture fisheries has plateaued and aquaculture production has steadily increased since the late 1980s (FAO, 2022). In the U.S. 70−85% of the seafood consumed in the U.S. in 2020 was imported with an estimated trade deficit of $17 billion (National Marine Fisheries Service, 2022). Meeting the increasing demand for seafood requires both fishers and farmers.
Growth in domestic farmed seafood production on farms creates jobs. A 2013 study of Indiana fish farmers, who mostly sell whole, live fish, concluded that every one job in aquaculture supported 0.66 jobs elsewhere in the supply chain (Broughton & Quagrainie, 2013). Farmed fish can help alleviate food insecurity and provide nutrient-rich protein for U.S. consumers.
Human and environmental health. The U.S. aquaculture supply chain is subject to over 170,000 federal and state regulatory restrictions that address food safety, transportation, environmental health, water use, fish health, and employment standards (Staples et al., 2021). To provide a healthy environment for their animals and comply with these regulations, farmers employ best management practices. These practices include growing only permitted species, daily fish behavioral observations, regular water-quality testing, preventing overfeeding, and treating wastewater to regulatory standards or better.
Regulation. Several federal entities play a direct role in regulating aquaculture. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) addresses wastewater, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) addresses food safety and drug approvals, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) addresses aquatic plant and animal health. Departments responsible for natural resources (e.g., permitting facilities, water withdrawal), agriculture (e.g., disease diagnostics), and health (e.g., food safety) are charged with applying and enforcing regulations at the state and local levels (National Agricultural Law Center, no date). Regulations may differ among states, which can cause confusion among producers (Carlton, et al., 2021).
Managing wastewater (i.e., effluent) properly is key to reducing pollution from aquaculture. The EPA National Pollutant Discharge Elimination Systems (NPDES) permit program regulates point sources of pollution including aquaculture facilities that meet the EPA’s criteria based on a combination of annual harvest volume, feed amounts, and types of species raised. These facilities are required to monitor wastewater to ensure they follow requirements (US EPA, 2023). Each state may also have specific regulations governing wastewater from aquaculture.
Challenges. According to economic research, the costs of regulation compliance to U.S. aquaculture businesses can be substantial (Engle, et al., 2019). These costs can disproportionately affect small farms such as those found in the Great Lakes region. In some cases, the cost of regulatory compliance has contributed to the decline in the number of U.S. farms (Engle, et al., 2019).
Solutions. GLAC is working to help streamline the regulatory system among states by bringing regulators together with farmers to talk about regulation policy and enforcement to support sustainable aquaculture while simultaneously protecting the aquatic environment.
Feed is one of the most important and costly inputs in aquaculture. Farmed aquatic animals are typically fed manufactured feeds with ingredients that meet the animal’s nutritional needs. When choosing what to feed their fish, farmers consider nutritional needs, palatability, consistency in feed composition, reliability of supply, water quality impacts, and consumer acceptability in addition to cost.
Aquaculture feeds have historically relied on fish meal and fish oil derived from wild-capture marine fisheries. Alternative ingredients derived from plants and other animal sources, such as cereal grains (e.g., soy and others), insects, and animal by-products, are increasingly being investigated and used to supply protein and other essential nutrients to replace marine resources in fish feeds (Colombo, 2023). Reducing reliance on wild fish ingredients in feeds can help increase the overall sustainability of aquaculture (NOAA Office of Aquaculture, 2022).
Feed science. Researchers study what is best for different fish species at all ages to ensure healthy growth while mitigating negative environmental impacts. Species-specific feed formulations are improved through research into the types, forms, and amounts of alternative proteins that can best replace marine resources (Aragão, 2022).
Illness and disease. Fish, like other animals, can become ill and require medical attention. Farmers, regulators, and fish health professionals have procedures, protocols, and drugs, including vaccines and antibiotics, to treat fish and ensure the safety of consumers and the environment. Animal health and welfare is a top priority for farmers. Best management practices and biosecurity plans are proactive measures designed to help prevent the introduction and spread of disease and protect the health and wellbeing of aquatic animals.
Salt is one of the most commonly used treatments in the production of freshwater fish to reduce stress, prevent or treat some diseases, and control gill and skin parasites (Francis-Floyd, 1995).
Medications are limited. The number of medications for use in aquaculture is limited. Drug approval is based on their effectiveness in treating or preventing a disease as well as an evaluation of a drug’s environmental safety and safety for human consumption (U.S. FDA, 2020). Antibiotic, anti-fungal, and antiparasitic aquaculture drugs are regulated by the FDA, while vaccines are regulated by the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Center for Veterinary Biologics (U.S. FDA, 2024 & USDA APHIS, 2020). When medicine is used in aquaculture, it must be used as labeled and only by prescription from a veterinary professional.
FDA-Approved Aquaculture Drugs
USDA APHIS Licensed Veterinary Biological Product Information: Currently licensed biologics for aquatic animals.
Fish vaccinations provide a health management tool for more sustainable disease control and are safe, effective, and increasingly available and affordable (Cain, 2021 and Elumalai, 2023).
GMOs are plants, animals or microbes in which one or more changes have been made to the genome, typically using high-tech genetic engineering, in an attempt to alter the characteristics of an organism (NIH-National Human Genome Research Institute). For centuries, humans have been using selective breeding and crossbreeding to produce plants and animals with more desirable traits, including faster growth rates, disease resistance, and better taste. Agriculture continues to employ these traditional methods along with modern gene modification techniques such as gene editing (R.M., 2024).
First genetically engineered animal approved for human consumption. AquaAdvantage salmon, produced in 2015 by Aquabounty Technologies, was the first genetically engineered animal approved for human consumption by the FDA (U.S. FDA, 2023a). It joined fruits, vegetables, and grains that have been on the U.S. market since the 1990s. AquaAdvantage salmon is a transgenic Atlantic salmon. Transgenic means it contains genetic material from an another organism. AquaAdvantage salmon contains genes that express growth hormone from a Chinook salmon and a promoter gene sequence from n Ocean Pout, which were combined to promote faster growth in early life stages (U.S. FDA, 2023b). A fish that grows faster is more economical to produce, uses less food, and takes less time to be ready to market.
Regulation of GMOs in the U.S. is a coordinated effort by the FDA, USDA, and EPA (U.S. FDA. 2022). The USDA requires any foods that contain transgenic ingredients (those not derived from conventional breeding or natural selection) to be labeled as bioengineered (USDA AMS, 2019).
Bioengineered foods. You can find a current list of bioengineered foods on the USDA List of Bioengineered Foods.
In the approval process for a product like AquaAdvantage salmon, the FDA conducts an environmental analysis focused on evaluating the risk of animal escape and the potential consequences to the environment and ecology should an escape occur (U.S. FDA, 2023b) Additionally, the product is assessed for safety when eaten by humans and animals (U.S. FDA, 2023b).
GMO research is underway to improve disease resistance in fish through genetic modification, with the goal of decreasing the need for antibiotics and improving overall fish health (Okoli et al., 2021).
Labels and third-party certifications on food packaging are there to help consumers make informed purchase decisions. Seafood must be labeled according to FDA labeling laws (U.S. FDA, 2017). Eco-labels indicate if a product meets the environmental, social, and sustainability standards of an organization as verified by a third party. Third-party certifications are not currently standardized or overseen by the U.S. government (Food & Water Watch, 2010).
Eating seafood is part of a healthy eating plan. Seafood is a source of lean, nutrient-rich protein that has many health benefits when consumed regularly, including reducing the risk of chronic disease (USDA HHS, 2020). A diversity of options are available to suit consumers’ preferences for taste and texture and to meet unique dietary needs.
The USDA’s Dietary Guidelines for Americans (2020−2025) recommends eating at least eight ounces of seafood per week. According to research, up to 90% of Americans do not meet these recommendations (USDA HHS, 2020). Regularly consuming a variety of fish and other types of seafood provides health benefits that outweigh the risks of not eating seafood (Mozaffarian & Rimm, 2022).
Farm-raised and wild-capture seafood are nutritious and delicious, providing a healthy and safe source of protein, vitamins, minerals, and omega-3 fatty acids. For example, the nutritional values of wild and farm-raised salmon are not identical, but both are considered high in omega-3 fatty acids and low in contaminants (Jensen et al., 2020).
Pregnancy and childhood. Including seafood as part of a healthy eating pattern during pregnancy, breastfeeding, and early childhood supports a child’s brain development. Seafood consumption advice developed for parents and children can be found on the FDA Advice about Eating Fish webpage and the Fish for your HealthTM website.
Aquaculture Stewardship Council. (n.d.) Antibiotics in Seafood Farming. https://asc-aqua.org/learn-about-seafood-farming/antibiotics/
Aragão C., Gonçalves A. T., Costas B., Azeredo R., Xavier M. J., & Engrola S. (2022). Alternative proteins for fish diets: Implications beyond growth. Animals, 12(9), 1211. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12091211
Broughton, M. C., & Quagrainie, K. K. (2013). Economic Importance of the Aquaculture Industry in Indiana (IISG-13-70). Illinois-Indiana Sea Grant. https://iiseagrant.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/EC-770-W.pdf
Cain, K. 22 March 2021. Vaccines may be the biggest tool in the fish health toolbox. Aquaculture North America. Available at: https://www.aquaculturenorthamerica.com/vaccines-may-be-the-biggest-tool-in-the-fish-health-toolbox/
Carlton, J.S., A. Shambach, and H.A. Hartenstine. 2021. “Voices from the Industry: Aquaculture Producers in the Midwestern United States” Choices. Quarter 4. Available online: https://www.choicesmagazine.org/choices-magazine/theme-articles/the-economics-of-us-aquaculture/voices-from-the-industry-aquaculture-producers-in-the-midwestern-united-states
Colombo, S. M., Roy K., Mraz J., Wan, A. H. L., Davies, S. M., Tibbetts, S., Øverland, M., Francis, D. S., Rocker, M. M., Gasco, L., Spencer, E., Metian, M., Trushenski, J. T., & Turchini, G. M. (2022) Achieving circularity and sustainability in feeds for farmed blue foods. Reviews in Aquaculture, 15(3), 1115‐1141. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12766
Elumalai, P., Thompson, K., and Lakshmi, S. (Eds). (2023). Fish Vaccines: Health Management for Sustainable Aquaculture. Routledge.
Engle CR, van Senten J, Fornshell G. Regulatory costs on U.S. salmonid farms. J World Aquacult Soc. 2019; 50: 522–549. https://doi.org/10.1111/jwas.12604
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. (2022). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2022. Towards Blue Transformation. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0461en
Food and Water Watch. 2010. Decoding Seafood Eco-Lables: Why We Need Public Standards. https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/documents/public_comments/guides-use-environmental-marketing-claims-project-no.p954501-00152%C2%A0/00152-56693.pdf
Francis-Floyd, Ruth. (1995). The Use of Salt in Aquaculture [Fact Sheet VM 86]. University of Florida Cooperative Extension Service. https://fisheries.tamu.edu/files/2013/09/The-Use-of-Salt-in-Aquaculture.pdf
Jensen, I.J., Eilertsen, K.E., Otnaes, C. H. A., Maehre, H. K., & Elvevoll, E. O. (2020). An update on the content of fatty acids, dioxins, PCBs and heavy metals in farmed, escaped and wild salmon (Salmo salar L.) in Norway. Foods, 9(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9121901
Lewis, S. G. & Boyle, M. (2017). The expanding role of traceability in seafood: tools and key initiatives. Journal of Food Science, 82(S1), A1-A57. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.13743
Meilan, Rick. Interview by Jessica Eise. “What are GMOs?” The Science of GMOs, Purdue University, 12 Sept. 2016, https://ag.purdue.edu/gmos/what-are-gmos.html.
Mozaffarian, D., & Rimm, E. B. (2006). Fish intake, contaminants, and human health: evaluating the risks and the benefits. Journal of the American Medical Association, 296(15), 1885-1899. https://doi:10.1001/jama.296.15.1885
National Agricultural Law Center. (n.d.). Aquaculture Overview – National Agricultural Law Center. The National Agricultural Law Center. Retrieved December 18, 2023 from https://nationalaglawcenter.org/overview/aquaculture/
National Human Genome Research Institute Genetically Modified Organism (GMO). National Institutes of Health. https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genetically-Modified-Organism.
National Marine Fisheries Service (2022). Fisheries of the United States, 2020. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Current Fishery Statistics No. 2020. Available at: https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/sustainable-fisheries/fisheries-united-states
NOAA Fisheries Office of Aquaculture. (2022). Sustainable Aquaculture Feeds and Fish Nutrition [Fact sheet]. U.S. Department of Commerce. https://media.fisheries.noaa.gov/2022-03/Fact-Sheet-Sustainable-Aquaculture-Feeds-and-Fish-Nutrition.pdf
Okoli, A. S., Blix, T., Myhr, A. I., Wengteng, X., & Xiaodong, X. (2021).Sustainable use of CRISPR/Cas in fish aquaculture: the biosafety perspective.Transgenic Research 31, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11248-021-00274-7
Seafood Watch. (n.d.) Improve traceability. Available at. https://www.seafoodwatch.org/seafood-basics/sustainable-solutions/improve-traceability
Staples, A.J., Abaidoo, E., Jescovitch, L. N., Chambers, D., Melstrom, R. T., & Malone, T.. (2021). Regulatory landscape of the U.S. aquaculture supply chain. Choices. Quarter 4. Available online: https://www.choicesmagazine.org/choices-magazine/theme-articles/the-economics-of-us-aquaculture/regulatory-landscape-of-the-us-aquaculture-supply-chain
U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2019). 2018 Census of Aquaculture. National Agricultural Statistics Service, USDA, Washington, District of Columbia, USA.
USDA Agricultural Marketing Service. (2019, February 19). National Bioengineered Food Disclosure Standard. https://www.ams.usda.gov/rules-regulations/national-bioengineered-food-disclosure-standard
USDA Agricultural Marketing Service. (n.d.) List of Bioengineered Foods. United States Department of Agriculture. https://www.ams.usda.gov/rules-regulations/be/bioengineered-foods-list
USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. (2021, September 24). Aquaculture Information. https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalhealth/animal-disease-information/aquaculture or USDA APHIS. (2020, June 2). APHIS Services for the Aquaculture Industry. USDA APHIS. https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalhealth/animal-disease-information/aquaculture/CT_Services
USDA & U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2020, December). Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025: Make Every Bite Count With the Dietary Guidelines (Ninth ed.). Dietary Guidelines for Americans. https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2023, March 21). Aquaculture NPDES Permitting. United States Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/npdes/aquaculture-npdes-permitting
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2017, November 14). Fish and Fishery Products Hazards and Controls Guidance Learning Module Videos. https://www.fda.gov/food/seafood-guidance-documents-regulatory-information/fish-and-fishery-products-hazards-and-controls-guidance-learning-module-videos
U.S. FDA. (2020, September 11). Aquaculture and Aquaculture Drugs Basics. https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/animal-health-literacy/aquaculture-and-aquaculture-drugs-basics
U.S. FDA, (2022, July). How GMOs Are Regulated in the United States [Fact Sheet]. https://www.fda.gov/food/agricultural-biotechnology/how-gmos-are-regulated-united-states
U.S. FDA. (2023a, March 7). AquAdvantage Salmon. https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/intentional-genomic-alterations-igas-animals/aquadvantage-salmon
U.S. FDA. (2023b, March 7). Q&A on FDA’s Approval of AquAdvantage Salmon. https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/aquadvantage-salmon/qa-fdas-approval-aquadvantage-salmon
U.S. FDA. (2024, February 2). Aquaculture. https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/development-approval-process/aquaculture